Cronobacter Support
03-17-2009, 09:06 AM
Frequency
United States
National surveillance programs continually demonstrate that Enterobacter species remain a significant source of morbidity and mortality in hospitalized patients.
In the Surveillance and Control of Pathogens of Epidemiological Importance [SCOPE] project, 24,179 nosocomial bloodstream infections from 1995-2002 were analyzed. Enterobacter species were the second-most-common gram-negative organism behind Pseudomonas aeruginosa; however, both bacteria were reported to each represent 4.7% of bloodstream infections in ICU settings. Enterobacter species represent 3.1% of bloodstream infections in non-ICU wards. In a more recent report, of nearly 75,000 gram-negative organisms collected from ICU patients in the United States between 1993 and 2004, Enterobacter species comprised 13.5% of the isolates. Multidrug resistance increased over time, especially in infections caused by E cloacae.1
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Previous reports from the National Nosocomial Infections Surveillance System (NNIS) demonstrated that Enterobacter species caused 11.2% of pneumonia cases in all types of ICUs, ranking third after Staphylococcus aureus (18.1%) and P aeruginosa (17%). The corresponding rates among patients in pediatric ICUs were 9.8% for pneumonia, 6.8% for bloodstream infections, and 9.5% for UTIs.2, 3, 4
Enterobacter species were also among the most frequent pathogens involved in surgical-site infections, as reported in the NNIS report from October 1986 to April 1997. The isolation rate was 9.5% (with enterococci, coagulase-negative staphylococci, S aureus, and P aeruginosa rates being 15.3%, 12.6%, 11.2%, and 10.3%, respectively).
Data on antibiotic resistance are available from the Intensive Care Antimicrobial Resistance Epidemiology (ICARE) surveillance report. The rates of Enterobacter resistance to third-generation cephalosporins were 25.3% in ICUs, 22.3% among non-ICU inpatients, 10.1% among ambulatory patients, and as high as 36.2% in pediatric ICUs.5
International
Enterobacter species have a global presence in both adult and neonatal ICUs. Surveillance data and outbreak case reports from North and South America, Europe, and Asia indicate that these bacteria represent an important opportunistic pathogen among neonates and debilitated patients in ICUs.
The prevalence of Enterobacter resistance to beta-lactam antibiotics, aminoglycosides, trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole (TMP-SMZ), and quinolones seems to be higher in certain European countries and Israel than in the United States and Canada. Higher rates of Enterobacter resistance to fluoroquinolones and to beta-lactam and cephalosporin antibiotics due to the production of extended-spectrum beta-lactamases have been reported in South America and the Asian and Pacific regions.6, 7
Mortality/Morbidity
Enterobacter infections cause considerable mortality and morbidity rates.
Enterobacter species can cause disease in virtually any body compartment. They are responsible for frequent and severe nosocomial infections that require prolonged hospitalization, multiple and varied imaging studies and laboratory tests, various surgical and nonsurgical procedures, and powerful and expensive antimicrobial agents. Most importantly, Enterobacter infections that do not directly causing death cause considerable suffering in many patients, most of whom are already afflicted with chronic diseases.
In patients with Enterobacter bacteremia, the most important factor in determining the risk of mortality is the severity of the underlying disease. Higher 30-day mortality rates were noted in patients presenting with septic shock and increasing Acute Physiology and Chronic Health Evaluation II scores. Other factors implicated, independently or by association, in the outcome of Enterobacter bacteremia include thrombocytopenia, hemorrhage, a concurrent pulmonary focus of infection, renal insufficiency, admission in an ICU, prolonged hospitalization, prior surgery, intravascular and/or urinary catheters, immunosuppressive therapy, neutropenia, antibiotic resistance, and inappropriate antimicrobial therapy.
Recent studies have demonstrated that empirical aminoglycoside use and appropriate initial antibiotic therapy were associated with lower mortality rates, whereas vasopressor use, ICU care, and acute renal failure were associated with higher mortality rates. Independent risk factors for mortality included cephalosporin resistance, trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole resistance, mechanical ventilation, and nosocomial infection.8, 9
Crude mortality rates associated with Enterobacter infections range from 15-87%, but most reported rates range from 20-46%. Attributable mortality rates are reported to range from 6-40%.
E cloacae infection is associated with the highest mortality rate of all Enterobacter infections.
Bacteremia with cephalosporin-resistant Enterobacter species is associated with a 30-day mortality rate that significantly exceeds that of infections with susceptible strains (33.7% vs 18.6%).
Mortality rates associated with Enterobacter pneumonia are higher than those of pneumonia due to many other gram-negative bacilli. These rates range from 14-71%. As with bacteremia, the severity of the underlying disease is the major factor that predicts outcome. Other factors that indicate an unfavorable outcome include the extent of the disease as seen on chest radiographs, corticosteroid therapy, isolation of multiple pathogens from lower respiratory tract secretions, and, possibly, treatment with a single antibiotic.
A review of 17 cases of Enterobacter endocarditis reported an overall mortality rate of 44.4%.
Race
Enterobacter infections have no reported or presumed racial predilection.
Sex
The male-to-female ratio of Enterobacter bacteremia is 1.3-2.5:1. This male predominance is also reported in the pediatric population.
Age
Enterobacter infections are most common in neonates and in elderly individuals, reflecting the increased prevalence of severe underlying diseases at these age extremes. In the pediatric ICU setting, an age younger than 2.5 years is a risk factor for colonization.
Enterobacter sakazakii has been reported as a cause of sepsis and meningitis, complicated by ventriculitis, brain abscess, cerebral infarction, and cyst formation.10 This clinical pattern appears to be specific to E sakazakii in neonates and infants infected with this bacterium. E sakazakii has also been associated with many outbreaks due to contaminated powdered formula for infants.11
United States
National surveillance programs continually demonstrate that Enterobacter species remain a significant source of morbidity and mortality in hospitalized patients.
In the Surveillance and Control of Pathogens of Epidemiological Importance [SCOPE] project, 24,179 nosocomial bloodstream infections from 1995-2002 were analyzed. Enterobacter species were the second-most-common gram-negative organism behind Pseudomonas aeruginosa; however, both bacteria were reported to each represent 4.7% of bloodstream infections in ICU settings. Enterobacter species represent 3.1% of bloodstream infections in non-ICU wards. In a more recent report, of nearly 75,000 gram-negative organisms collected from ICU patients in the United States between 1993 and 2004, Enterobacter species comprised 13.5% of the isolates. Multidrug resistance increased over time, especially in infections caused by E cloacae.1
(http://javascript%3Cb%3E%3C/b%3E:showcontent%28%27active%27,%27references%27%2 9;)
Previous reports from the National Nosocomial Infections Surveillance System (NNIS) demonstrated that Enterobacter species caused 11.2% of pneumonia cases in all types of ICUs, ranking third after Staphylococcus aureus (18.1%) and P aeruginosa (17%). The corresponding rates among patients in pediatric ICUs were 9.8% for pneumonia, 6.8% for bloodstream infections, and 9.5% for UTIs.2, 3, 4
Enterobacter species were also among the most frequent pathogens involved in surgical-site infections, as reported in the NNIS report from October 1986 to April 1997. The isolation rate was 9.5% (with enterococci, coagulase-negative staphylococci, S aureus, and P aeruginosa rates being 15.3%, 12.6%, 11.2%, and 10.3%, respectively).
Data on antibiotic resistance are available from the Intensive Care Antimicrobial Resistance Epidemiology (ICARE) surveillance report. The rates of Enterobacter resistance to third-generation cephalosporins were 25.3% in ICUs, 22.3% among non-ICU inpatients, 10.1% among ambulatory patients, and as high as 36.2% in pediatric ICUs.5
International
Enterobacter species have a global presence in both adult and neonatal ICUs. Surveillance data and outbreak case reports from North and South America, Europe, and Asia indicate that these bacteria represent an important opportunistic pathogen among neonates and debilitated patients in ICUs.
The prevalence of Enterobacter resistance to beta-lactam antibiotics, aminoglycosides, trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole (TMP-SMZ), and quinolones seems to be higher in certain European countries and Israel than in the United States and Canada. Higher rates of Enterobacter resistance to fluoroquinolones and to beta-lactam and cephalosporin antibiotics due to the production of extended-spectrum beta-lactamases have been reported in South America and the Asian and Pacific regions.6, 7
Mortality/Morbidity
Enterobacter infections cause considerable mortality and morbidity rates.
Enterobacter species can cause disease in virtually any body compartment. They are responsible for frequent and severe nosocomial infections that require prolonged hospitalization, multiple and varied imaging studies and laboratory tests, various surgical and nonsurgical procedures, and powerful and expensive antimicrobial agents. Most importantly, Enterobacter infections that do not directly causing death cause considerable suffering in many patients, most of whom are already afflicted with chronic diseases.
In patients with Enterobacter bacteremia, the most important factor in determining the risk of mortality is the severity of the underlying disease. Higher 30-day mortality rates were noted in patients presenting with septic shock and increasing Acute Physiology and Chronic Health Evaluation II scores. Other factors implicated, independently or by association, in the outcome of Enterobacter bacteremia include thrombocytopenia, hemorrhage, a concurrent pulmonary focus of infection, renal insufficiency, admission in an ICU, prolonged hospitalization, prior surgery, intravascular and/or urinary catheters, immunosuppressive therapy, neutropenia, antibiotic resistance, and inappropriate antimicrobial therapy.
Recent studies have demonstrated that empirical aminoglycoside use and appropriate initial antibiotic therapy were associated with lower mortality rates, whereas vasopressor use, ICU care, and acute renal failure were associated with higher mortality rates. Independent risk factors for mortality included cephalosporin resistance, trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole resistance, mechanical ventilation, and nosocomial infection.8, 9
Crude mortality rates associated with Enterobacter infections range from 15-87%, but most reported rates range from 20-46%. Attributable mortality rates are reported to range from 6-40%.
E cloacae infection is associated with the highest mortality rate of all Enterobacter infections.
Bacteremia with cephalosporin-resistant Enterobacter species is associated with a 30-day mortality rate that significantly exceeds that of infections with susceptible strains (33.7% vs 18.6%).
Mortality rates associated with Enterobacter pneumonia are higher than those of pneumonia due to many other gram-negative bacilli. These rates range from 14-71%. As with bacteremia, the severity of the underlying disease is the major factor that predicts outcome. Other factors that indicate an unfavorable outcome include the extent of the disease as seen on chest radiographs, corticosteroid therapy, isolation of multiple pathogens from lower respiratory tract secretions, and, possibly, treatment with a single antibiotic.
A review of 17 cases of Enterobacter endocarditis reported an overall mortality rate of 44.4%.
Race
Enterobacter infections have no reported or presumed racial predilection.
Sex
The male-to-female ratio of Enterobacter bacteremia is 1.3-2.5:1. This male predominance is also reported in the pediatric population.
Age
Enterobacter infections are most common in neonates and in elderly individuals, reflecting the increased prevalence of severe underlying diseases at these age extremes. In the pediatric ICU setting, an age younger than 2.5 years is a risk factor for colonization.
Enterobacter sakazakii has been reported as a cause of sepsis and meningitis, complicated by ventriculitis, brain abscess, cerebral infarction, and cyst formation.10 This clinical pattern appears to be specific to E sakazakii in neonates and infants infected with this bacterium. E sakazakii has also been associated with many outbreaks due to contaminated powdered formula for infants.11